Overview of the Book Stigma by Erving Goffman

Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity is a book written by sociologist  Erving Goffman in 1963 about the idea of stigma and what it is like to be a stigmatized person. It is a look into the world of people considered abnormal by society. Stigmatized people are those that do not have full social acceptance and are constantly striving to adjust their social identities: physically deformed people, mental patients, drug addicts, prostitutes, etc. Goffman relies extensively on autobiographies and case studies to analyze stigmatized persons’ feelings about themselves and their relationships to â€Å"normal† people. He looks at the variety of strategies that stigmatized individuals use to deal with the rejection of others and the complex images of themselves that they project to others. Three Types of Stigma In the first chapter of the book, Goffman identifies three types of stigma: stigma of character traits, physical stigma, and stigma of group identity. Stigma of character traits are: â€Å"...blemishes of individual character perceived as weak will, domineering, or unnatural passions, treacherous and rigid beliefs, and dishonesty, these being inferred from a known record of, for example, mental disorder, imprisonment, addiction, alcoholism, homosexuality, unemployment, suicidal attempts, and radical political behavior.† Physical stigma refers to physical deformities of the body, while stigma of group identity is a stigma that comes from being of a particular race, nation, religion, etc. These stigmas are transmitted through lineages and contaminate all members of a family. What all of these types of stigma have in common is that they each have the same sociological features: â€Å"...an individual who might have been received easily in normal social intercourse possesses a trait that can obtrude itself upon attention and turn those of us whom he meets away from him, breaking the claim that his other attributes have on us.† When Goffman refers to â€Å"us,† he is referring to the non-stigmatized, which he calls the â€Å"normals.† Stigma Responses Goffman discusses a number of responses that stigmatized people can take. For example, they could undergo plastic surgery, however, they still risk being exposed as someone who was formerly stigmatized. They can also make special efforts to compensate for their stigma, such as drawing attention to another area of the body or to an impressive skill. They can also use their stigma as an excuse for their lack of success, they can see it as a learning experience, or they can use it to criticize â€Å"normals.† Hiding, however, can lead to further isolation, depression, and anxiety and when they do go out in public, they can, in turn, feel more self-conscious and afraid to display anger or other negative emotions. Stigmatized individuals can also turn to other stigmatized people or sympathetic others for support and coping. They can form or join self-help groups, clubs, national associations, or other groups to feel a sense of belonging. They might also produce their own conferences or magazines to raise their morale. Stigma Symbols In chapter two of the book,  Goffman discusses the role of â€Å"stigma symbols.† Symbols are a part of information control; they are used to understand others. For example, a wedding ring is a symbol that shows others that someone is married. Stigma symbols are similar. Skin color is a stigma symbol, as is a hearing aid, cane, shaved head, or wheelchair. Stigmatized people often use symbols as â€Å"disidentifiers† in order to try to pass as a â€Å"normal.† For instance, if an illiterate person is wearing ‘intellectual’ glasses, they might be trying to pass as a literate person; or, a homosexual person who tells ‘queer jokes’ might be trying to pass as a heterosexual person. These covering attempts, however, can also be problematic. If a stigmatized person tries to cover their stigma or pass as a â€Å"normal,† they have to avoid close relationships, and passing can often lead to self-contempt. They also need to constantly be alert and always checking their houses or bodies for signs of stigmatization. Rules for Handling Normals In chapter three of this book, Goffman discusses the rules that stigmatized people follow when handling â€Å"normals.† One must assume that â€Å"normals† are ignorant rather than malicious.No response is needed to snubs or insults, and the stigmatized should either ignore or patiently refute the offense and views behind it.The stigmatized should try to help reduce the tension by breaking the ice and using humor or even self-mockery.The stigmatized should treat â€Å"normals† as if they are honorary wise.The stigmatized should follow disclosure etiquette by using disability as a topic for serious conversation, for example.The stigmatized should use tactful pauses during conversations to allow recovery from shock over something that was said.The stigmatized should allow intrusive questions and agree to be helped.The stigmatized should see oneself as â€Å"normal† in order to put â€Å"normals† at easy. Deviance In the final two chapters of the book, Goffman discusses the underlying social functions of stigmatization, such as social control,  as well as the implications that stigma has for theories of deviance. For instance, stigma and deviance can be functional and acceptable in society if it is within limits and boundaries.

Infidelity Laws Vs. United States - 986 Words

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hristopher McCandless last journal entry before dying of starvation in the Alaska bush was simply the words Beautiful Blueberries Essay Example For Students

hristopher McCandless last journal entry before dying of starvation in the Alaska bush was simply the words Beautiful Blueberries Essay Over the previous two years he bought a secondhand canoe on impulse and paddled to Mexico. Then he lived on the streets of Los Angeles with vagrants, camped in the Arizona dessert with hippies, tramped through almost every western state, occasionally holding odd jobs. He also lived completely off the land in the Alaskan backcountry. McCandless epic journey separated him from his parents and peers, a world of security and material excess, and a world in which he felt grievously cut off from the raw throb of existence. It was a journey that would have been a complete waste if it werent for Jon Krakauers book entitled Into the Wild. A lot of people believe that McCandless was an idiot. He was simply one more dreamy half-caulked greenhorn who went into the country expecting to find answers to all his problems and instead found only mosquitoes and a lonely death. Some people blamed Krakauer, in the magazine article that preceded the book, for glorifying a foolish, pointless death. But the beauty of Krakauers writing is that he doesnt glorify Chris McCandless life or even try to hide his personal weaknesses. Instead, that which becomes evident is a vivid portrait of McCandless journeys and an examination of why people are attracted to high-risk activities. Krakauer begins the book with Chris McCandless hiking into the Alaskan wilderness to his ensuing death. He does not return to this scene until the next to last chapter, effectively forcing the reader to see McCandless as more than an unprepared misfit who deserved to die because of the risks he took. We learn of his adventures tramping around the continent, discern how McCandless differs from people whom he had been favorably compared to in the outdoors community, learn of his family and upbringing, and we are told of a similar adventure in Alaska which almost claimed the authors life. Only then are we returned to the morbid Alaskan scene and the controversies surrounding McCandless death. Krakauer succeeds in writing a powerful book because we become attached to McCandless dream and sympathize to a greater degree with his desire to undertake what he labeled as the ultimate challenge. There are some unconventional aspects of the book, which turn it into something greater than a story of Chris McCandless. These are the way in which Krakauer goes about examining Chris McCandless through his own life, through others who have a similar desire for adventure, and through an examination of the novels he read. Into the Wild is not a fluff story about a misdirected youth; it has themes to which anyone who has ever dreamed of undertaking their own adventure, however large or small, can relate and gain insight. Overall Krakauer believes Chris McCandless wasnt that different from anyone else who liked adventure. Throughout the book there is an underlying battle against McCandless critics by trying to justify the  journey. Krakauer confesses that after writing a magazine article on McCandless he remained haunted by the particulars of the boys starvation and by vague, unsettling parallels between events in his life and those in my own. Unwilling to let McCandless go, Krakauer spent more than a year retracing the convoluted path that led to his death in the Alaska bush, chasing down the details with an interest that bordered on obsession until he finished writing the book. In this fierce passion, Krakauer is not only telling of McCandless life but his own, and in the process trying to make a world of critics understand why he, McCandless, and countless others are drawn to a life of potentially suicidal adventure. This passion draws the reader in, spins them around and spits them back out into the world with a different perception of life. This passion makes Into the Wild an amazing book.

Evaluating Viewpoint of Academicians

Question: Discuss about theEvaluating Viewpoint of Academicians. Answer: Introduction The initiation of knowledge and the insights drawn upon the intellect of any individual had begun from the advent of mankind. The cause and reason for development in the thought process of any human beings can be referred from the period of Renaissance. In fact the practices and the implantation of academic and research programs has improved (Haberman 2014). The modes and types of education practices have brought about significant alterations which has impacted the course of higher education. The review summarizes the probable viewpoints and cognitive recognition of the academics. This evaluation draws a comparison of the imposed political correctness in regards to the whole education sector. In a boarder perspective, though research and experiments enhance the process of education but still there are number controversies which have reacted against their conventional arguments. In view of this, the literature review proposes the ideologies that are affected by this hypothesis of validation of the academic views (Guo and Lakshmikantham 2014). Human Information Theories Information theories have existed in all fields. Depending in the cognitive patterns of the entire system there has been theories and beliefs that have a traditional outlook. The human mind operates on a system of information can be developed have been restored in their membrane and with due time it gets replenished with new category of information (Fawcett et al. 2104). The important concept of memory and how it accepts the general viewpoint because of the social peer should also be considered while analyzing the theories and conclusions drawn by the eminent experts. Extensive research is only an analysis and a complete evaluation supported by data which have previously been drawn from a similar conclusion on that topic ( Hanushek and Jackson 2013). Interviews and self revelations by many research pupils and academicians have revealed that often in the order to contribute an allegiance to the forefathers of the theory, people have caused many alterations in their proposals. Individu alistic views have been minimized in the sense that the decorum and principles of the concerned subject is mainly dominated by few of the individuals who have gained the power of that particular society (Haberman 2014). Procedures which are Essential for Comprehending the State of Affairs Withholding the fact that everyone is not capable of equal intelligible power and capability, the viewpoints should not be discerned, as the suggested ideas can help in improving the conservative theories (Fawcett et al. 2104). The curriculums have always promoted students for pursuing higher education. The issue that rises due to the accepted fact that all studies and mediums can be observed from different angles is not necessarily an option because the scenario changes from one point to the other. Academic comprehension suggests that viewpoints and conclusions are always supported by a number of exemplary references and evidence which must be used resourcefully (Haberman 2014). It is not an obligation to provide serious research to all the outputs of a study but the consideration is very important as it promotes and aids young minds to generate things which are equally accessible and accepted. In fact one of the most crucial onsets of the whole scenario is the phenomenon of imparti ng high skills and values regarding a particular subject. Everyone is not capable of proposing the best methods for innovations and scientific experiments but in the other hand the educational institutions presents the module and the scope in such a way so as to influence the minds who provides interest in exploring more about the subject. For instance if one can imagine the scenario of subject matter expert they can easily evaluate the generalizations that have been brought about by the modes of education ( Hanushek and Jackson 2013). Academicians often relegate and develop hypothesis on the same pattern that concerns the contemporary world. In order to understand and allow opportunities to students it s necessary to create options for self assessment as it will prepare their mindsets to proper research and the evidence of an available data. Efficiency and Assessment of the Academic Theories Considering the theories of sociology it can be assessed that nothing in the universe is rocket science, expect for rocket science itself which is more of a stated fact rather than proved theory (Guo and Lakshmikantham 2014). The query that can be raised while interpreting a data or any statements which has been made by eminent scholars must have a logical base, because the practical application of any research result is always not possible (Bartunek and Rynes 2014).The demonstrations of any character cannot assess through calculations or any numeric strategies cannot be observed through theoretical analysis. This basis of segmentation disallows the whole issue of composing or creating any theories which reacts to the system. Experts often deny the resistance they receive from the community for better and improved technique as this will overlap and counter act the previous theories raised by senior scholars (Fawcett et al. 2104). A huge number of proposals are being submitted and als o rejected every year. Many scholars too graduate to pursue higher studies and enable their expertise to create and formulate the best of opportunities for better analysis (Haberman 2014). In fact it can be realized more when as the student move to the upper grades, the specialization increases and as the elementary development on all subjects begins to decline. In this scenario the interest of the student is very potent because it will realize their subject topic and help them in invoking with activities that will aid their research. This is the core reason which makes the whole scenario very important as the aspects are necessary to be indentified and subjected to various factors (Fawcett et al. 2104). There is never a dearth of producing new dynamics and dimensions of new perspectives but the incorporation must be regulated and maintained by the University and Research Institutes (Bartunek and Rynes 2014). The probability and facility is not similar for all subjects but regardles s of the environment that exists in the whole education circuit, sometimes the complication that is associated with the subjects can be rendered as pretentious (Hanushek and Jackson 2013). It is never to be misunderstood that the subjects dont carry any weight rather it might add to the peer pressure and make the students less confident after applying for a subject. This is obvious that the examination patterns that the schools have in order to evaluate their students are due to the peer pressure for better grades (Bartunek and Rynes 2014). Grade systems are not considered the best method for evaluation but in the pretensions that the whole system might get disturbed this is followed accordingly. The reflections for understanding the scenario reading the academic condition of any country depends on many such factors that addresses the issues of the educational reform (Bartunek and Rynes 2014).Simplification is an easy process but the way to deconstruct a theorem is not final solutio n for this pretention of the course or the subject. Conclusion There are many articles which have been represented through the academic scholars and how they respond to the reactions of the society. There is an unwritten antagonism which is prevalent within the whole circumference of the subject matters. It is obligation to comply with the rules of these academic associations which is filled with like mind people who are serious practitioners of the subjects. The different strategies that are built within the forum of the same academic subject can be accessed through the means. There are individual societies that help in relating to the concerned arenas of knowledge. In order to access the instances of activities where the students does not take the curriculum seriously, this method is applied. This will not only help generating a sense of responsibility and well as in boosting their confidence towards their subject and scope. The fact that subjects are not that difficult as it seems because the schools intentionally have a curriculum which will improve and help in adopting and honing to the skills that are required for the development of that child. Australian University and several other Universities regard this cognition power as it is also important to alter the magnitude and need for learning and self improvement. A number of positive impacts have been observed in regards to the whole scenario that comprehends the possibilities of the statement. The motivation factor can also be regulated from this scenario as the students have been associated with a duty towards enhancing their skills and capability. The statement which counters the issue rose regarding the pretentious behavior of the syllabus as complicated, whereas on closer look it is really accessible. This is extremely important as the student might observe the relevancies which are being communicated through this style of teaching or module. Reference Bartunek, J.M. and Rynes, S.L., 2014. Academics and practitioners are alike and unlike the paradoxes of academicpractitioner relationships.Journal of Management,40(5), pp.1181-1201. Caiazza, R. and Volpe, T., 2015. MA process: a literature review and research agenda.Business Process Management Journal,21(1), pp.205-220. Fawcett, S.E., Waller, M.A., Miller, J.W., Schwieterman, M.A., Hazen, B.T. and Overstreet, R.E., 2014. A trail guide to publishing success: tips on writing influential conceptual, qualitative, and survey research.Journal of Business Logistics,35(1), pp.1-16. Guo, D. and Lakshmikantham, V., 2014.Nonlinear problems in abstract cones(Vol. 5). Academic press. Haberman, S.J., 2014.Analysis of qualitative data: Introductory topics. Academic Press. Hanushek, E.A. and Jackson, J.E., 2013.Statistical methods for social scientists. Academic Press. Hchstdter, A.K. and Scheck, B., 2015. Whats in a name: An analysis of impact investing understandings by academics and practitioners.Journal of Business Ethics,132(2), pp.449-475. Ismael, A.Y.A. and Babiker, M.E.M., 2016. The Relationship between Accounting Education Accounting Practice: With Reference to Academics and Practitioners of Accounting Profession in Sudan.International Journal of Economics and Finance,8(10), p.220. Klarsfeld, A., Booysen, L.A., Ng, E., Roper, I. and Tatli, A. eds., 2014.9.78 E+ 12: Country Perspectives on Diversity and Equal Treatment. Edward Elgar Publishing. Lindsay, P.H. and Norman, D.A., 2013.Human information processing: An introduction to psychology. Academic press. Macnamara, J., 2014. Emerging international standards for measurement and evaluation of public relations: A critical analysis.Public Relations Inquiry,3(1), pp.7-29. Patterson, F., 2016. Developments in work psychology: Emerging issues and future trends.Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,74(4), pp.381-390. Rao, K.R. and Yip, P., 2014.Discrete cosine transform: algorithms, advantages, applications. Academic press. Serenko, A. and Bontis, N., 2013. The intellectual core and impact of the knowledge management academic discipline.Journal of Knowledge Management,17(1), pp.137-155. Taylor, H.M. and Karlin, S., 2014.An introduction to stochastic modeling. Academic press.

Lean Burn Engine Technology

Introduction With the rising desire to attain more miles per gallon of fuel, car manufacturers are now focusing their attention on lean burn engine technologies. On its part, the American government demonstrated its support for lean burn engine technology when it ratified the Energy Policy Act of 2005.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Lean Burn Engine Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In essence, this act qualified cars, trucks, and sports utility vehicles that had engines using the lean burn technology for tax rebates amounting to as much as $2000 under the stipulation of that act. This research paper will examine the technology behind lean burn engines, its impact on the environment and its future prospects (Tobias, et al. 2006). The first lean burn technology for automobile engines was introduced in the market nearly four decades ago by Chrysler. The technology comprised of a set of sensors a nd electronics that would generally regulate the movement of the spark plug under a range of driving circumstances. This technology was meant to increase the performance of the engine and utilize the fuel used per mile. Initially, the automotive challenge that the inventors of lean burn technology wanted to overcome was the throttling losses. Naturally, an automobiles car must have enough space to provide the required power for acceleration but still be able to operate below its possible output when driving at high speed and this was hard to achieve using the lean burn technology (Tobias, et al. 2006). At the present, a large percentage of cars utilize a form of technology commonly known as the four-stroke combustion cycle to convert fuel into motion. This kind of technology is also referred to as the Otto cycle, in respect of Nikolaus Otto, who discovered it in 1867. The main problem of this kind of engine technology is that it consumes much fuel and environmentalists consider it h armful to the ozone layer. On its part, the lean burn engine technology utilizes refined ignition systems along with advanced emission technologies. This combination allows cars using this technology to attain excellent mileage performance and causes minimal threat to the environment (Tobias, et al. 2006). Lean Burn Engine Technology Currently, internal combustion engines that use natural gas are commanding more attention as interest grows in manufacturing automobile engines that are both efficient and environmentally friendly. In response to this interest, automobile manufacturers have introduced natural gas automobile engine sets that feature â€Å"lean-burn† technology.Advertising Looking for research paper on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The technology is referred to as lean because unlike the convectional engine technology it uses excess air along with the fuel. The use of this kind of technology ha s brought about two positive effects. First, the excess air used in lean burn technology reduces the temperature of the combustion process and this lowers the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) produced by nearly half, compared to a conventional gasoline engine. Second, since there is also excess oxygen available, the combustion process is more efficient and more power is produced from the same amount of fuel (Tobias, et al. 2006). The Combustion Process Any air/fuel reaction requires an energy source to initiate combustion. In the conventional petroleum engines, the combustion process is initiated by the spark plug. In lean-burn gas engines, the combustion process is initiated by pre-mixing the air and fuel upstream of the turbocharger before being introduced into the cylinder. This creates a more homogenous mixture in the combustion chamber and reduces the occurrence of â€Å"knocking† or detonation. To prevent either knocking or misfiring, the combustion process must be co ntrolled within a narrow operating window. In lean burn engine technology, the charge air temperatures together with air to fuel ratio are closely monitored. This is done by the microprocessor- based engine controller, which regulates the fuel flow and air/gas mixture and ignition timing (Cutter Information Corp., 1992). Unlike the conventional petroleum engine, the design of the lean-burn engine incorporates a simple open combustion chamber housed in the piston crown. The shape of the piston crown introduces turbulence in the incoming air/fuel mixture that promotes complete combustion by thoroughly exposing it to the advancing flame front. The flame plate of the cylinder head is regular (flat) and the spark plug is centrally located. The air and gas fuel are correctly mixed under the control of the engine management system (Cutter Information Corp., 1992).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Lean Burn Engine Technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Improving efficiency of the System Although lean burn engines that use natural gas have been in existence for some time now, there is room for improvement in terms of energy efficiency and emissions reduction. In fact, enhancing the efficiency of lean burn gas engines remains one of the most likely and cost-effective approaches to enhancing vehicle fuel economy over the next three decades. According to automobile experts, the United States has the potential of reducing its transportation fuel usage by as much as 40% through the production of engines that use the lean burn gas technology (Automotive News, 1992). If this is achieved, it will definitely lead to better economic, environmental, and energy security. By using lean burn engine technology in hybrid and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it is possible to attain even greater fuel saving benefits (EIA, 2008). Ideally, one way of increasing the efficiency of the lean burn engine tec hnology is by focusing on complementary technology pathways involving shared partnerships with vehicle and engine manufacturers, suppliers, national laboratories, and learning institutions. Another strategy that can increase the efficiency of automobile engines using the lean burn technology is by inventing new combustion energy than the currently available natural gas usage. However, this should have minimal emissions in order to enable the engines to meet the required emission regulations without having to use the complex and costly equipment that is currently required. The invention of a cheap technology would definitely ensure that more people buy vehicles fitted with lean burn engines since the current costs have been a hindrance to many people (EIA, 2008). Ideally, one way of achieving all these strategies is by having well balanced research and development efforts ranging from basic research to prototype demonstration. This should be informed at every stage by industry collab orators whose role is to help in identifying the critical barriers to the commercialization of this technology.Advertising Looking for research paper on engineering? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The existing public laboratories and universities should also increase their efforts in understanding how the combustion process can be enhanced to maximize its performance and keep emissions at minimal (Pollack, 1992). Environmental Impact of Lean Burn Engine Technology Motor vehicles continue to be the dominant source of air pollution despite tremendous advances in engine technology and pollution control. In industrialized countries, even as cleaner vehicles are replacing older ones, and as transportation emissions are beginning to decline, vehicles are still the major source of air pollution. Meanwhile, in the developing world, vehicle numbers are growing exponentially and without strict control standards in place, emissions from transportation sources are becoming an increasingly urgent concern (Tobias, et al. 2006). There have been repeated calls for gasoline vehicles to raise fuel economy, and thus decrease CO2 emissions. Lean-burn engine designs that use natural gas reduce fu el consumption by 15–20%. In order not to trade off higher fuel efficiency for increased pollutant emissions, lean-burn engine designs will require new aftertreatment technology for control of Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) emissions. NOx storage traps, the most efficient existing NOx control technology for lean-burn engines, are much more dramatically impacted by fuel sulfur than other form of engine technologies. Because higher sulfur levels reduce the effectiveness of the traps and necessitate increased fuel consumption, ultralow sulfur fuel is the key enabler for increasing the efficiency of vehicles using the lean burn engine technology (Tobias, et al. 2006). The lean-burn engine increases the ratio of air to fuel, thus reducing fuel use. Lean-burn engines provide an automatic benefit for CO and HC control, which are formed in smaller amounts and can be more easily oxidized in the oxygen-rich exhaust. The challenge comes with control of NOx in an oxygen-abundant environment. NOx storage traps face fewer technical challenges in natural gas engines than in diesel engines because combustion temperatures are easier to control. NOx storage traps demonstrate over 90% efficiency in storage and conversion of NOx to N2, but require virtually sulfur-free fuels for efficient use and this has not yet been achieved (Tobias, et al. 2006). Storage traps operate by incorporating basic oxides into the catalyst, which in turn reacts with the oxidized NO2 in the presence of excess O2 to form fairly stable nitrates. NOx can be stored in this way during lean combustion (excess oxygen) conditions. As the storage medium approaches saturation, or whenever acceleration occurs, the engine will burn fuel-rich, generating CO and HC gases. This triggers the release of NO2, which reacts, as in a three way canisters to oxidize CO and HC to CO2 and H2O while simultaneously being reduced to N2 (Tobias, et al. 2006). One of the results of this technology is significantly reduced emissions i n the exhaust. Most of the new lean-burn automobile engines have NOx emissions as low as.85 grams/BHP-hr, and produce low amounts of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM). This allows the engine sets to meet the most stringent air quality regulations without after-treatment devices in the exhaust stream. For even lower emissions, lean-burn automobile engine sets are frequently coupled with integrated after-treatment options such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Oxidation Catalysts, resulting in NOx levels at or below 0.15 grams/BHP-hr. With these after-treatment options, the lean gas automobile engines have been shown to meet the most stringent prime power emissions regulations anywhere in the world (Tobias, et al. 2006). As it has already been noted, the lean burn engine technology will enable huge leaps in fuel efficiency, translating directly into reductions in CO2 emissions in automobiles. If properly utilized, this technology could dramat ically reduce both greenhouse gas and conventional pollutant emissions. Additionally, research continues on how to make zero-emission transportation technologies, such as the hydrogen fuel cell economically viable. Sulfur is a major obstacle for technologies to both reduce and eliminate greenhouse gas emissions. The reduced fuel use in lean burn engine technology means that low sulfur is generated and this is definitely a good thing for the environment (Johnson, 1992). Sulfur levels in fuel have a range of direct and indirect impacts on greenhouse gas emissions. Sulfur prevents the efficient functioning of certain types of catalysts, which in turn translates into higher methane emissions from oxidation catalysts and higher CO2 emissions from more advanced technologies. Sulfur also impedes the viability of emissions control technologies in several arenas. In addition, fuel cells—the most promising long-term solution for eliminating greenhouse gas emissions—will require sulfur-free fuels in order to function. This goal is attainable if the use of lean burn engine technology in automobiles is fully adopted (Johnson, 1992). Fuel flexibility Another advantage of the lean-burn engine technology with full-authority electronic engine controls is the ability to operate on gas with a wide range of quality. A measurement called the Methane Number (MN) is used to determine gas suitability as an engine fuel. Most natural gas has an MN from 70 to 97, and pipeline quality gas typically has an MN of about 75. Resource recovery gas from landfills or sewage treatment facilities is typically of lower quality, but is often suitable for use in lean-burn engines. Most of the lean-burn automobile engines operate on gas with an MN of 50 or greater, providing excellent fuel flexibility. However, gas with a MN below 70 may require the engines output to be derated. Lean-burn gas engine sets are setting a new standard for fuel efficiency, high power output for their size, a nd for low emissions. In regions with supplies of natural gas, these engine sets are providing highly reliable electric power for utility peaking, distributed generation, prime power and for combined heat and power systems (MacKenzie, Roger, Donald, 1992). The Future Prospects of Lean Burn Technology Currently, there is an increased interest in lean-burn engine technologies, i.e. lean-burn natural gas engines, mainly due to their higher fuel efficiency compared to conventional petroleum engines (Greene, 2005). These engines work under excess oxygen and consequently produce oxygen-rich exhaust. However, effectively reducing NOx in oxygen-rich exhaust is a challenging endeavor because the conventional three-way catalyst technology is not able to reduce NOx efficiently under any circumstances. Therefore, new catalytic systems have to be developed. Several approaches have been suggested and among the most promising is the so-called NOx storage reduction (NSR) concept. Because of the th ree-way catalyst, the emission of NOx by natural gas engines has decreased significantly. However, this gain is counteracted by the continuing rise in vehicle numbers and distances traveled, particularly by the increase in the number of diesel engines that do not use the lean burn engine technology. The latest quarterly pricing survey by PricewaterhouseCoopers (Greene, 2005) shows that cars using the lean burn engine technology accounted for 49% of the total European car market at the end of 2005. It is expected that the number of cars using the lean burn engine technology will continue to grow, potentially achieving 55-60% of the total market. There are several reasons for the increased interest in lean burn engines that use natural gas. The lean-burn combustion of natural gas engines results in higher fuel efficiency compared to conventional petroleum engines and consequently significantly lower amounts of the greenhouse gas CO2. In addition, natural gas has enhanced performance r egarding CO and HC. Most governments in Westerns countries have been encouraging the use of lean burn engine technology. Tax regimes make natural gas cheaper than petroleum in order encourage the sales of lean burn technology engines (MacKenzie, Roger, Donald, 1992). The increased interest in lean-burn engine technology has prompted research on the development of a new catalyst that is capable of reducing NOx in excess O2 to meet future legislation. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx using ammonia (NH3) or urea (CO (NH2)2) is a well-known process in industry as well as in stationary lean burn engine applications. In the presence of O2, NH3 tends to react with NOx to form N2. Urea, which is safer in use than NH3, can be used as NH3 source and urea-based systems are already applied for heavy-duty trucks (Sanger, 2001). Higher fuel efficiency and reduced emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2 make lean-burn engines attractive compared to conventional petroleum engines. However, c ontrolling the exhaust NOx emission has been recognized as one of the most challenging aspects for lean-burn engine technology as the conventional three-way catalyst is not effective in reducing NOx in a lean exhaust due to the high oxygen level (Sanger, 2001). A NOx storage/reduction (NSR) catalyst is among the most promising solutions to control NOx in lean exhaust. The NSR catalyst contains a storage component in order to store NOx under lean conditions. Catalyst regeneration is necessary as the storage capacity of the absorbing component gets saturated (Brunekreef, et al, 2010). Regeneration takes place by the introduction of a short period of rich driving, as injections of extra fuel cause decomposition of stored NOx and subsequent reduction into N2. A critical aspect of the NSR technology is the catalyst deactivation by sulfur. A detailed understanding about the NOx storage and reduction mechanism is important for improving catalyst regeneration times and preventing catalyst d eactivation. There has also been increased funding on research to ensure that commercialization of lean burn engine technology will not produce unintended human health effects. The already conducted research on this field has revealed that lean burn engines using low sulfur (less than 15-ppm sulfur) fuel and equipped with catalyzed particulate matters does not cause lung inflammation or pose other health hazards. This shows that the future prospects of lean burn engine technology is indeed bright just by looking at its environmental and financial factors and the increased funding from governments that want to develop an environmentally friendly ecosystem (Brunekreef, et al, 2010). Conclusion With the increased desire to gain more miles per gallon of fuel, car manufacturers are turning their attention to lean burn engine technologies. Over the last few years, the number of vehicles using engines made from lean burn technology has been on the rise. This has been enhanced by the effort s of various governments, which have been offering tax cuts to those purchasing cars fitted with this kind of engine technology. Although there are numerous challenges that have prevented this technology from being fully adopted, current trends in the automobile industry show that these challenges can be overcome in the course of time. With most governments and organizations keen on preserving the environment, there is no doubt that the use of lean burn engine technology will gain more popularity in the coming years. References Automotive News. (1992). Cleaner Civic OK in California. Automotive News 19 (2), 8. Brunekreef, B., et al. (2010). Air Pollution from Truck Traffic and Lung Function in Children Living Near Motorways. Epidemiology 8 (1), 298–303. Cutter Information Corp. (1992). Lean Burn Takes a Step Forward. Global Environmental Change Report, 7, (1), 7. EIA. (2008). The Transition to Ultralow-Sulfur Diesel Fuel: Effects on Prices and Supply. Washington: Energy Infor mation Administration. Greene, D. (2005). A Note on Implicit Consumer Discounting of Automobile Fuel Economy: Reviewing the Available Evidence. Transportation Research 17 (6), 491-500. Johnson, R. (1992). Next Accord May Offer New Engine. Automotive News, 17 (1), 231-240. MacKenzie, J., Roger, D. and Donald, C. (1992). The Going Rate: What it Really Costs to Drive. Washington: World Resources Institute. Pollack, A. (1992). Running Half-Engine to Save Fuel. NY Times, 18 November, p. 16. Sanger, D. (2001). Fuel Efficiency: New Japan Coup? New York Times, July 31, p. C1. Tobias, H., et al. (2006). Chemical Analysis of Diesel Engine Nanoparticles Using a Nano-DMA/Thermal Desorption Particle Beam Mass Spectrometer. Environmental Science Technology 35 (2), 2233–2243. This research paper on Lean Burn Engine Technology was written and submitted by user Arya D. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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Free Essays on Mayan Number System

Jeremy Math Report Mayan Math In order to examine the Mayan number system you must first know that our number system is a 10 base number system. This means that things are counted by 10; we start 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. From there it goes 11, which is "1" repeated, so it starts over again there until 19, then at 20 everything goes with a two, and so on and so forth. We have the same 10 numbers repeating the whole time. The Maya number system was a base twenty system. Here are the Mayan numerals. . The reason for a base 20 system almost certainly arose from ancient Mayans who counted on both their fingers and their toes. Although it was a base 20 system, it is also called a vigesimal system. Five plays a major role with the line symbol, again clearly relating to five fingers and toes. Although the system is base 20 it only has three number symbols (perhaps the unit symbol arising from a pebble and the line symbol from a stick used in counting). Often people say how impossible it would be to have a number system to a large base because it would involve remembering so many special symbols. This shows how people are conditioned by the system they use and can only see variants of the number system in close analogy with theirs. Surprisingly advanced features of the Mayan number system are the zero, represented by a shell for reasons we cannot explain, and the positional nature of the system. However, there is a slight inconsistency between the Mayan numerical system and a true base 20 system. In a true base 20 system the first number would denote the number of units up to 19, the next would denote the number of 20's up to 19, the next the number of 400's up to 19, etc. Although the Maya number system starts this way with the units up to 19 and the 20's up to 19, it changes in the third place and this denotes the number of 360's up to 19 instead of the number of 400's. After... Free Essays on Mayan Number System Free Essays on Mayan Number System Jeremy Math Report Mayan Math In order to examine the Mayan number system you must first know that our number system is a 10 base number system. This means that things are counted by 10; we start 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. From there it goes 11, which is "1" repeated, so it starts over again there until 19, then at 20 everything goes with a two, and so on and so forth. We have the same 10 numbers repeating the whole time. The Maya number system was a base twenty system. Here are the Mayan numerals. . The reason for a base 20 system almost certainly arose from ancient Mayans who counted on both their fingers and their toes. Although it was a base 20 system, it is also called a vigesimal system. Five plays a major role with the line symbol, again clearly relating to five fingers and toes. Although the system is base 20 it only has three number symbols (perhaps the unit symbol arising from a pebble and the line symbol from a stick used in counting). Often people say how impossible it would be to have a number system to a large base because it would involve remembering so many special symbols. This shows how people are conditioned by the system they use and can only see variants of the number system in close analogy with theirs. Surprisingly advanced features of the Mayan number system are the zero, represented by a shell for reasons we cannot explain, and the positional nature of the system. However, there is a slight inconsistency between the Mayan numerical system and a true base 20 system. In a true base 20 system the first number would denote the number of units up to 19, the next would denote the number of 20's up to 19, the next the number of 400's up to 19, etc. Although the Maya number system starts this way with the units up to 19 and the 20's up to 19, it changes in the third place and this denotes the number of 360's up to 19 instead of the number of 400's. After...

Health Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Health Economics - Essay Example Economic theory triggers arguments put forward for both sides of the discussion. Neo-classical economists state that the utilization of health services surpasses communally beneficial standards when health care expenses are entirely covered by insurance. Insurance decreases the marginal expenditure of individuals who are utilizing health services because it efficiently lowers the cost of these services to zero. Accordingly, insured individuals will take advantage of as much health care as they would if the health care were free of charge (Thompson and Mossialos n.d., 227). Many studies reveal that when confronted with higher expenses, individuals will procure less care. Preferably, higher co-payments would damp only the use of low-worth care (Chernew and Fendrick n.d., 17). The probable risks of higher cost sharing are most sensitive for seniors and disabled persons.   Since these people use the majority of health services and medicines, their out-of-pocket expenses for co-payments would be maximum and they are the ones most probable to evade or delay required health care owing to cost problems (Ku 2003).   When individuals have to disburse fees or co-payments for health care, the quantity can be so high concerning earnings that it results in â€Å"economic catastrophe† for the person or the household. Such high spending health care facilities signify that individuals have to reduce their necessities, for instance, food and clothing, or are incapable of paying for their childrens schooling. Every year, around 44 million families, or above 150 million people, all through the world face appalling expenditure, and roughly 25 million families or over 100 million individuals are pressed into poverty by the requirement to disburse for services. Moreover, the effect of these out-of-pocket payments for health care goes away from catastrophic